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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Plastid</span></h1>
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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="de" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="de" dir="ltr"><table class="infobox hintergrundfarbe-basis float-right" style="margin:0 0 1em 1.5em; border: 1px solid #CCD2D9; width: 200px; text-align: center; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;">
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<th style="background:#ABCDEF; color:#202122; border: 1px solid #ABCDEF;">Übergeordnet
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<td style="padding: 0 .5em;"><a href="Organell" title="Organell">Organell</a>
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<th style="background:#ABCDEF; color:#202122; border: 1px solid #ABCDEF;">Untergeordnet
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<td style="padding: 0 .5em;"><a href="Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">Chloroplast</a><br><a href="Amyloplast" title="Amyloplast">Amyloplast</a><br><a href="Chromoplast" title="Chromoplast">Chromoplast</a><br><a href="Etioplast" title="Etioplast">Etioplast</a><br><a href="Leukoplasten" title="Leukoplasten">Leukoplasten</a><br><a href="Elaioplast" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaioplast">Elaioplast</a><br><a href="Proteinoplast" title="Proteinoplast">Proteinoplast</a><br><a href="Apicoplast" class="mw-redirect" title="Apicoplast">Apicoplast</a> (Apikoplast)<br><a href="Gerontoplast" title="Gerontoplast">Gerontoplast</a><br>Cyanelle (Cyanoplast, Muroplast)<br><a href="Proplastid" title="Proplastid">Proplastid</a><br><a href="Rhodoplast" title="Rhodoplast">Rhodoplast</a><br>Phaeoplast<br><a href="Chromatophor" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromatophor">Chromatophor</a><sup id="cite_ref-BMCBiology-EvolvinganOrganelle_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMCBiology-EvolvinganOrganelle-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MolecularBiologyEvol-EndosymbioticGeneTransfer_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MolecularBiologyEvol-EndosymbioticGeneTransfer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br><a href="Kleptoplastid" title="Kleptoplastid">Kleptoplastid</a>
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<th style="background:#ABCDEF; color:ä202122; border: 1px solid #ABCDEF;"><a href="Gene_Ontology" title="Gene Ontology">Gene Ontology</a>
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<td style="text-align:left; padding: 0 .5em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ebi.ac.uk/QuickGO/GTerm?id=GO:0009536">QuickGO</a>
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<p><b>Plastiden</b> (von <span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal"><a href="Altgriechische_Sprache" title="Altgriechische Sprache">altgriechisch</a></span> <span lang="grc-Grek" class="Grek" style="font-style:normal">πλαστός</span> <i>plastós</i> „geformt“) sind die in <a href="Pflanzen" class="mw-redirect" title="Pflanzen">Pflanzen</a> und <a href="Alge" title="Alge">Algen</a> vorkommenden besonderen <a href="Organell" title="Organell">Zellorganellen</a>, die aus <a href="Endosymbiontentheorie" title="Endosymbiontentheorie">endosymbiontisch</a> lebenden Zellen hervorgegangen sind und unter anderem für die <a href="Photosynthese" title="Photosynthese">Photosynthese</a> gebraucht werden, oder die aus solchen Organellen evolutionär hervorgegangen sind.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bau">Bau</h2></div>
<p>Plastiden verfügen (fast immer<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) über ein eigenes ringförmiges <a href="Genom" title="Genom">Genom</a> (plastidäres Genom oder auch <b><a href="Chloroplasten-DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloroplasten-DNA">Plastom</a></b> genannt), sowie eigene <a href="Ribosom" title="Ribosom">Ribosomen</a> (<i>Plastoribosomen</i> genannt), die in seine <a href="Cytoplasma" title="Cytoplasma">plasmatische</a> Grundsubstanz (<i>Stroma</i>) eingebettet sind. Darüber hinaus liegen weitere plastidenspezifische Komponenten für die plastidäre <a href="Replikation" title="Replikation">Replikation</a>, <a href="Transkription_(Biologie)" title="Transkription (Biologie)">Transkription</a> und <a href="Translation_(Biologie)" title="Translation (Biologie)">Translation</a> vor.
</p><p>Nach den sie umhüllenden <a href="Biomembran" title="Biomembran">Membranen</a> unterscheidet man einfache Plastiden, die auf ein primäres Endosymbioseereignis zurückzuführen sind und von zwei Hüllmembranen umgeben sind, und <a href="Komplexe_Plastiden" title="Komplexe Plastiden">komplexe Plastiden</a>, die durch sekundäre oder tertiäre Endosymbiose entstanden und so drei oder vier Hüllmembranen besitzen.
Kommen in einer Zelle mehrere Plastiden vor, so sind diese meist über <a href="Stromuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Stromuli">Stromuli</a> miteinander verbunden.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2></div>
<p>Die einfachen Plastiden der <a href="Glaucocystaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucocystaceae">Glaucocystophyceen</a>, <a href="Rotalgen" title="Rotalgen">Rotalgen</a>, <a href="Gr%C3%BCnalge" title="Grünalge">Grünalgen</a> (Chlorophyta) und <a href="Landpflanzen" class="mw-redirect" title="Landpflanzen">Landpflanzen</a> (Embryophyta) stammen wahrscheinlich aus einer primären <a href="Endosymbiose" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiose">Endosymbiose</a>. Sie sind monophyletisch, d. h. die drei Algengruppen und die Landpflanzen (Embryophyta) stammen von einem gemeinsamen einzelligen Vorfahren ab, dessen Nachkommen sich in drei Evolutionslinien aufspalteten:
</p>
<ul><li>Die Plastiden der Glaucocystophyceen werden <i>Cyanellen</i> (auch <i>Cyanoplasten</i> oder <i>Muroplasten</i>) genannt, verwenden als Lichtsammelkomplexe <a href="Phycobilisom" title="Phycobilisom">Phycobilisomen</a> und sind noch von einem Rest einer bakteriellen Zellwand umgeben.</li>
<li>Die Plastiden der Rotalgen heißen <i>Rhodoplasten</i>, enthalten ebenfalls noch Phycobilisomen, jedoch keine bakterielle Zellwand mehr.</li>
<li>Die <a href="Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">Chloroplasten</a> der Grünalgen und höheren Pflanzen bilden keine Phycobilisomen mehr, enthalten Chlorophyll b und bilden <a href="St%C3%A4rke" title="Stärke">Stärke</a> im Plastiden.</li>
<li>Die Plastiden der <a href="Braunalgen" title="Braunalgen">Braunalgen</a> nennt man auch <i>Phaeoplasten</i>.</li></ul>
<p>Auch die Plastiden der <a href="Am%C3%B6be" title="Amöbe">amöboiden</a> <i><a href="Paulinella" title="Paulinella">Paulinella</a> chromatophora</i> (<a href="Euglyphida" title="Euglyphida">Euglyphida</a>, s. u.), sowie einiger anderer Arten dieser Gattung, sind offenbar primäre Chloroplasten (<a href="Chromatophor" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromatophor">Chromatophoren</a> oder <a href="Cyanellen" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanellen">Cyanellen</a> genannt). Diese <a href="Klade" title="Klade">Klade</a> der Gattung <i>Paulinella</i> stammt offenbar von einem Vorfahren ab, der unabhängig und viel später ein Cyanobakterium aus der Verwandtschaft der Gattungen <i><a href="Prochlorococcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> und <i><a href="Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> aufgenommen hatte.<sup id="cite_ref-paulinella_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-paulinella-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PSanchezB2017_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PSanchezB2017-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div style="z-index: 0; border-radius: 2px; position: relative; height: 675px; float: left; width: 69%; margin: 10px; margin-bottom: 4px; overflow: hidden;">
<div style="z-index: 2; border-radius: 2px; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 0px; left: 0px; width: 100%; background: #00c9be; color: #00c9be;"><a href="Cyanobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanobacteria"><span style="background-color: rgba(255,255,255,0.8); padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #00c9be;">Cyanobacteria</span></a></div>
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<div style="position: relative; line-height: 28px; height: 16px; left: -4px; top: -4px; width: 16px; border-radius: 16px; background: white; border: 4px solid rgb(144,238,144); color: rgb(144,238,144);"></div></div>
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<div style="z-index: 3; border-radius: 2px 0 0 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 20px; height: 40px; top: 104px; left: 0px; color: #ddd; background-color: rgba(255,255,255,0.8); padding-right: 2px;"><b><a href="Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida"><span style="color: #ccc;">Archaeplastida</span></a></b></div>
<div style="z-index: 2; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 100px; margin-left: 15%; width: 15%; left: 2px; background: rgb(144,238,144); color: rgb(144,238,144);"></div>
<div style="z-index: 2; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 100px; margin-left: 30%; width: 5%; left: 2px; background: #24d12b; color: #24d12b;"></div>
<div style="z-index: 2; border-radius: 0 2px 2px 0; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 100px; margin-left: 35%; width: 65%; background: #24d12b; color: #24d12b;"><a href="Landpflanzen" class="mw-redirect" title="Landpflanzen"><span style="background-color: rgba(255,255,255,0.8); padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #24d12b;">Landpflanzen</span></a></div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 52px; top: 50px; margin-left: 25%; width: 4px; background: #00ca9b; color: #00c9be;"></div>
<div style="z-index: 2; border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 50px; right: 0px; width: 75%; background: #00ca9b; color: #00ca9b; text-align: right;"><a href="Glaucophyta" title="Glaucophyta"><span style="background-color: rgba(255,255,255,0.8); padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #00ca9b;">Glaucophyta</span></a></div>
<div style="z-index: 2; border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 104px; top: 100px; margin-left: 35%; width: 4px; background: #24d14e; color: #24d14e;"></div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 2; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 200px; margin-left: 35%; width: 65%; background: #24d14e; color: #24d14e;"><a href="Gr%C3%BCnalgen" class="mw-redirect" title="Grünalgen"><span style="background-color: rgba(255,255,255,0.8); padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #24d14e;">Grünalgen</span></a></div>
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<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 150px; margin-left: 70%; width: 30%; background: #24d16d; color: #24d16d;"><a href="Euglenida" title="Euglenida"><span style="background-color: rgba(255,255,255,0.8)e; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #24d16d;">Euglenida</span></a></div>
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<div style="z-index: 1; border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 252px; top: 102px; margin-left: 29%; width: 2%; background: white; color: #ddd;"></div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; position: absolute; height: 252px; width: 4px; top: 102px; margin-left: 30%; left: -2px; background: #dc003e; color: #dc003e;"></div>
<div style="border-radius: 0 2px 2px 0; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 350px; margin-left: 30%; width: 70%; background: #dc003e; color: #dc003e;"><a href="Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta"><span style="background: white; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #dc003e;">Rhodophyta</span></a></div>
<div style="z-index: 1; border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 202px; top: 200px; margin-left: 37%; width: 2%; left: 2px; background: white; color: #ddd;"></div>
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<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 300px; margin-left: 85%; width: 15%; background: #00c9be; color: #00c9be;"><i><a href="Paulinella" title="Paulinella"><span style="background: white; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #00c9be;">Paulinella</span></a></i></div>
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<div style="position: relative; line-height: 28px; height: 16px; top: -14px; left: -14px; width: 16px; border-radius: 16px; background: white; padding: 8px;">
<div style="position: relative; line-height: 28px; height: 16px; left: -4px; top: -4px; width: 16px; border-radius: 16px; background: white; border: 4px solid #24d150; color: #24d150;"></div></div>
</div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 250px; margin-left: 70%; width: 30%; background: #24d150; color: #24d150;"><a href="Chlorarachniophyta" title="Chlorarachniophyta"><span style="background-color: rgba(255,255,255,0.8); padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #24d150;">Chlorarachniophyta</span></a></div>
<div style="z-index: 0; border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 229px; top: 400px; margin-left: 57%; left: 2px; width: 4px; background: #bd3f00; color: #bd3f00;"></div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 625px; margin-left: 57%; width: 13%; left: 2px; background: #bd3f00; color: #bd3f00;"></div>
<div style="z-index: 0; border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 29px; top: 600px; margin-left: 70%; width: 4px; background: #b13b00; color: #b13b00;"></div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 600px; margin-left: 70%; width: 30%; background: #b13b00; color: #b13b00;"><a href="Haptophyta" title="Haptophyta"><span style="background: white; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #b13b00;">Haptophyta</span></a></div>
<div style="z-index: 0; border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 29px; top: 625px; margin-left: 70%; width: 4px; background: #ca4300; color: #ca4300;"></div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 650px; margin-left: 70%; width: 30%; background: #ca4300; color: #ca4300;"><a href="Cryptomonaden" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptomonaden"><span style="background: white; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #ca4300;">Cryptophyta</span></a></div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 400px; margin-left: 57%; width: 43%; background: #99602a; color: #99602a;"><a href="Heterokontophyta" title="Heterokontophyta"><span style="background: white; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #99602a;">Heterokontophyta</span></a></div>
<div style="z-index: 0; border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 54px; top: 400px; margin-left: 65%; left: -2px; width: 4px; background: #d96f02; color: #d96f02;"></div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 450px; margin-left: 65%; width: 35%; background: #d96f02; color: #d96f02;"><a href="Dinoflagellata" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinoflagellata"><span style="background-color: rgba(255,255,255,0.8); padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #d96f02;">Dinoflagellata</span></a></div>
<div style="z-index: 0; border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 54px; top: 450px; margin-left: 85%; left: -2px; width: 4px; background: #ccc; color: #ccc;"></div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 500px; margin-left: 85%; width: 15%; background: #ccc; color: #aaa;"><a href="Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa"><span style="background: white; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 4px; color: #aaa;">Apicomplexa</span></a></div>
<div style="z-index: 0; border-radius: 2px; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 104px; top: 450px; margin-left: 75%; left: -2px; width: 4px; background: #ddd; color: #ddd;"></div>
<div style="border-radius: 2px; z-index: 1; text-align: right; position: absolute; line-height: 28px; height: 4px; top: 550px; margin-left: 75%; width: 25%; background: #ddd; color: #bbb;"><a href="Ciliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciliophora"><span style="background: white; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; color: #bbb;">Ciliophora</span></a></div>
<div style="position: absolute; line-height: 120%; width: 55%; bottom: 0; left: 0;"><b>Kladogramm der möglichen <span style="white-space:nowrap">Chloroplasten-Evolution</span></b>
<p><small><sup><b>a</b></sup> Es hat sich mittlerweile herausgestellt, dass die <a href="Chromalveolata" title="Chromalveolata">Chromalveolata</a> <a href="Paraphyletisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletisch">paraphyletisch</a> sind in Bezug auf die <a href="Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a>.</small>
</p>
</div>
</div><div style="clear:both;"></div>
<p>Bei den <a href="Gef%C3%A4%C3%9Fpflanzen" title="Gefäßpflanzen">Gefäßpflanzen</a> unterscheidet man neben den (photosynthetisch aktiven) Chloroplasten weitere Typen von Plastiden: die <a href="Gerontoplast" title="Gerontoplast">Gerontoplasten</a> und <a href="Etioplast" title="Etioplast">Etioplasten</a> als Entwicklungen der Chloroplasten, sowie den <a href="Chromoplast" title="Chromoplast">Chromoplasten</a> und den <a href="Leukoplasten" title="Leukoplasten">Leukoplasten</a>, aus dem <a href="Amyloplast" title="Amyloplast">Amyloplasten</a>, <a href="Elaioplast" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaioplast">Elaioplasten</a> und <a href="Proteinoplast" title="Proteinoplast">Proteinoplasten</a> hervorgehen können. <a href="Proplastid" title="Proplastid">Proplastid</a> wird jener Vorläufertyp genannt, aus dem sich die Plastiden entwickeln können.
</p><p>Die übrigen Algen aus den Evolutionslinien der <a href="Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopilen</a>, <a href="Haptophyta" title="Haptophyta">Haptophyta</a>, <a href="Cryptophyceae" title="Cryptophyceae">Cryptophyceae</a>, <a href="Chlorarachniophyta" title="Chlorarachniophyta">Chlorarachniophyta</a> und <a href="Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a> bilden komplexe Plastiden. Die Wirtszellen sind nicht mit den obengenannten der Plantae (Rotalgen, Grünalgen, sog. höhere Pflanzen und vermutlich auch Glaucocystophyceen) verwandt, jedoch ihre Plastiden, die höchstwahrscheinlich aus sekundären <a href="Endosymbiontentheorie" title="Endosymbiontentheorie">Endosymbiosen</a> herstammen.
</p><p>Die photosynthetisch aktiven Vertreter der Euglenozoa (= Euglenida) und die Chlorarachniophyta erhielten ihre Plastiden durch Aufnahme einer Grünalge, enthalten also komplexe Chloroplasten, alle übrigen sind auf Rotalgen zurückzuführen, also komplexe Rhodoplasten. Bei Dinoflagellaten finden sich verschiedene Endosymbiose-Ereignisse von sekundären Endosymbiosen mit Rotalgen, tertiären Endosymbiosen mit Haptophyceen und Cryptophyceen bis zu instabilen <a href="Kleptoplastid" title="Kleptoplastid">Kleptoplastiden</a>, die wieder verdaut werden.
</p><p>Seit den 1990er-Jahren hat man plastidenähnliche <a href="Organell" title="Organell">Zellorganellen</a> auch in verschiedenen <a href="Protozoen" title="Protozoen">Protozoen</a>, den <a href="Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexa</a>, gefunden. Über die „Apicoplasten“ genannten Zellbestandteile verfügen etwa auch die <a href="Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a>-Erreger aus der Gattung <a href="Plasmodien" title="Plasmodien">Plasmodium</a>. Nach heutigem Stand des Wissens handelt es sich hierbei um komplexe <a href="Rhodoplast" title="Rhodoplast">Rhodoplasten</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Teilung">Teilung</h2></div>
<p>Lange Zeit war unbekannt, wie Plastiden sich teilen und ihre Form verändern. Heute weiß man, dass auch <a href="Bakterien" title="Bakterien">Bakterien</a> ein <a href="Zytoskelett" class="mw-redirect" title="Zytoskelett">Zytoskelett</a> besitzen, dessen <a href="Protein" title="Protein">Proteine</a> <a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionäre</a> Vorläufer des <a href="Eukaryoten" title="Eukaryoten">eukaryotischen</a> Zytoskeletts sind. Aus Versuchen am <a href="Laubmoos" class="mw-redirect" title="Laubmoos">Laubmoos</a> <i><a href="Physcomitrella_patens" class="mw-redirect" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a></i> (unter anderem mit <a href="Knockout-Moos" title="Knockout-Moos">Knockout-Moosen</a>) ist bekannt, dass die <a href="FtsZ" class="mw-redirect" title="FtsZ">FtsZ</a>-Proteine, <a href="Tubulin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubulin">Tubulin</a>-<a href="Homologie_(Genetik)" title="Homologie (Genetik)">Homologe</a>, nicht nur an der Chloroplasten-Teilung beteiligt sind<sup id="cite_ref-René_Strepp(1998)_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-René_Strepp(1998)-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, sondern auch ein komplexes Netzwerk in den Plastiden ausbilden können. Sie erfüllen ähnliche Funktionen wie das Zytoskelett im <a href="Cytoplasma" title="Cytoplasma">Cytoplasma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ralf_Reski(2002)_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ralf_Reski(2002)-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kiessling,_J.(2000)_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiessling,_J.(2000)-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sonstiges">Sonstiges</h2></div>
<ul><li>Ein weiteres primäres Endosymbiose-Ereignis ist mit einem <b>nicht</b>-photosynthetischen cyanobakteriellen Symbionten in der <a href="Kieselalgen" title="Kieselalgen">Kieselalgen</a>familie <a href="Rhopalodiaceae" title="Rhopalodiaceae">Rhopalodiaceae</a> (Ordnung Rhopalodiales) bekannt.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakayama2017_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakayama2017-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li>Ein weiterer Fall ist das <a href="Wimpertierchen" title="Wimpertierchen">Wimpertierchen</a> <i>Pseudoblepharisma tenue</i><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Heterotrichea), das neben einem <a href="Gr%C3%BCnalgen" class="mw-redirect" title="Grünalgen">Grünalgen</a>-Endosymbionten (<i><a href="Chlorella" title="Chlorella">Chlorella</a></i> sp. K10, sekundäre Endosymbiose), auch ein photosynthetisch aktives Bakterium als Endosymbionten hat – dies ist aber kein Cyanobakterium, sondern ein <a href="Schwefelpurpurbakterien" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwefelpurpurbakterien">Schwefelpurpurbakterium</a> aus der Familie <a href="Chromatiaceae" title="Chromatiaceae">Chromatiaceae</a> (Candidatus <i>Thiodictyon intracellulare</i><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-SAMG2021_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SAMG2021-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literatur">Literatur</h2></div>
<ul><li>Patrick J. Keeling: <i>The endosymbiotic origin, diversification and fate of plastids</i>. In: <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.</i> Band 365, Nr. 1541, 2010, S. 729–748, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20124341?dopt=Abstract">PMID 20124341</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1541/729.full.pdf+html">PDF</a> (freier Volltextzugriff, englisch)</li>
<li>Przemysław Gagat, Paweł Mackiewicz: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/1120829321/34"><i>Cymbomonas tetramitiformis</i> - a peculiar prasinophyte with a taste for bacteria sheds light on plastid evolution</a>, in: Symbiosis, 10. November 2016, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13199-016-0464-1" class="extiw external" title="doi:10.1007/s13199-016-0464-1">doi:10.1007/s13199-016-0464-1</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weblinks">Weblinks</h2></div>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin:0.1em 0 0 0;"><div class="noresize noviewer" style="display:inline-block; line-height:10px; min-width:1.6em; text-align:center;" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons"></span></span></div><b><span class=""><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Plastids?uselang=de"><span lang="en">Commons</span>: Plastids</a></span></b> – Sammlung von Bildern, Videos und Audiodateien</div>
<ul><li>Wilfried Probst: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilfried-probst.de/site/tag/exosymbiose/">Frühe Evolution und Symbiose</a>, Europa-Universität Flensburg, Institut für Biologie und Sachunterricht und ihre Didaktik: §Plastiden, abgerufen am 19. April 2019</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-BMCBiology-EvolvinganOrganelle-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-BMCBiology-EvolvinganOrganelle_1-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Takuro Nakayama, John M Archibald: <cite style="font-style:italic">Evolving a photosynthetic organelle</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">BMC Biology</cite>. 10. Jahrgang, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>1</span>, 2012, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>35</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-10-35">10.1186/1741-7007-10-35</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22531210?dopt=Abstract">PMID 22531210</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3337241/">PMC 3337241</a> (freier Volltext).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Plastid&rft.atitle=Evolving+a+photosynthetic+organelle&rft.au=Takuro%26%2332%3BNakayama%2C%26%2332%3BJohn+M%26%2332%3BArchibald&rft.date=2012&rft.doi=10.1186%2F1741-7007-10-35&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=BMC+Biology&rft.pages=35&rft.pmc=3337241&rft.pmid=22531210&rft.volume=10.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-MolecularBiologyEvol-EndosymbioticGeneTransfer-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-MolecularBiologyEvol-EndosymbioticGeneTransfer_2-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">E. C. M. Nowack, H. Vogel, M. Groth, A. R. Grossman, M. Melkonian, G. Glöckner: <cite style="font-style:italic">Endosymbiotic Gene Transfer and Transcriptional Regulation of Transferred Genes in <i>Paulinella chromatophora</i></cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Molecular Biology and Evolution</cite>. 28. Jahrgang, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>1</span>, 2010, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>407–22</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev%2Fmsq209">10.1093/molbev/msq209</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20702568?dopt=Abstract">PMID 20702568</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Plastid&rft.atitle=Endosymbiotic+Gene+Transfer+and+Transcriptional+Regulation+of+Transferred+Genes+in+Paulinella+chromatophora&rft.au=E.+C.+M.%26%2332%3BNowack%2C%26%2332%3BH.%26%2332%3BVogel%2C%26%2332%3BM.%26%2332%3BGroth%2C+...&rft.date=2010&rft.doi=10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsq209&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+and+Evolution&rft.pages=407-22&rft.pmid=20702568&rft.volume=28.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">David Roy Smith, Robert W. Lee: <cite style="font-style:italic">A Plastid without a Genome: Evidence from the Nonphotosynthetic Green Algal Genus <i>Polytomella</i></cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Plant Physiology</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>164</span>, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>4</span>, 1. April 2014, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>1812–1819</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.113.233718">10.1104/pp.113.233718</a></span>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-pmid" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24563281?dopt=Abstract">PMID 24563281</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3982744/">PMC 3982744</a> (freier Volltext).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Plastid&rft.atitle=A+Plastid+without+a+Genome%3A+Evidence+from+the+Nonphotosynthetic+Green+Algal+Genus+Polytomella&rft.au=David+Roy+Smith%2C+Robert+W.+Lee&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft.doi=10.1104%2Fpp.113.233718&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=Plant+Physiology&rft.pages=1812-1819&rft.pmc=3982744&rft.pmid=24563281&rft.volume=164" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jake Buehler: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/reeking-parasitic-sapria-plant-lost-body-much-genetic-code">A reeking, parasitic plant lost its body and much of its genetic blueprint</a>, auf: ScienceNews vom 10. Februar 2021.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-paulinella-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-paulinella_5-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="cite">Luis Delaye, Cecilio Valadez-Cano, Bernardo Pérez-Zamorano: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://currents.plos.org/treeoflife/article/how-really-ancient-is-paulinella-chromatophora/"><i>How Really Ancient Is Paulinella Chromatophora?</i></a> In: <i>PLoS Currents.</i> 2016<span style="display:none">;</span><span class="Abrufdatum" style="display:none"> abgerufen im 1. Januar 1</span> (10.1371/currents.tol.e68a099364bb1a1e129a17b4e06b0c6b).</span><span style="display: none;" class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3APlastid&rft.title=How+Really+Ancient+Is+Paulinella+Chromatophora%3F&rft.description=How+Really+Ancient+Is+Paulinella+Chromatophora%3F&rft.identifier=&rft.creator=Luis%26%2332%3BDelaye%2C%26%2332%3BCecilio%26%2332%3BValadez-Cano%2C%26%2332%3BBernardo%26%2332%3BP%C3%A9rez-Zamorano&rft.date=2016"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Purificación López-García, Laura Eme, David Moreira: <cite style="font-style:italic">Symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Journal of Theoretical Biology</cite>. 434. Jahrgang, 2017, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>20–33</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.02.031">10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.02.031</a></span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022519317300954">elsevier.com</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Plastid&rft.atitle=Symbiosis+in+eukaryotic+evolution&rft.au=Purificaci%C3%B3n%26%2332%3BL%C3%B3pez-Garc%C3%ADa%2C%26%2332%3BLaura%26%2332%3BEme%2C%26%2332%3BDavid%26%2332%3BMoreira&rft.btitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.date=2017&rft.doi=10.1016%2Fj.jtbi.2017.02.031&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=20-33&rft.volume=434.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-PSanchezB2017-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-PSanchezB2017_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Patricia Sánchez-Baracaldo, John A. Raven, Davide Pisani, Andrew H. Knoll: <cite style="font-style:italic">Early photosynthetic eukaryotes inhabited low-salinity habitats</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</cite>. 114. Jahrgang, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>37</span>, 12. September 2017, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>E7737–E7745</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1620089114">10.1073/pnas.1620089114</a></span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/lookup/doi/10.1073/pnas.1620089114">pnas.org</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Plastid&rft.atitle=Early+photosynthetic+eukaryotes+inhabited+low-salinity+habitats&rft.au=Patricia%26%2332%3BS%C3%A1nchez-Baracaldo%2C%26%2332%3BJohn+A.%26%2332%3BRaven%2C%26%2332%3BDavide%26%2332%3BPisani%2C+...&rft.date=2017-09-12&rft.doi=10.1073%2Fpnas.1620089114&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=37&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.pages=E7737-E7745&rft.volume=114.+Jahrgang" style="display:none"> </span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">W Probst, Europa-Universität Flensburg: §Auf dem Weg zur Chloroplastenbildung</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-René_Strepp(1998)-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-René_Strepp(1998)_9-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">René Strepp, Sirkka Scholz, Sven Kruse, Volker Speth, <a href="Ralf_Reski" title="Ralf Reski">Ralf Reski</a>: <i>Plant nuclear gene knockout reveals a role in plastid division for the homolog of the bacterial cell division protein FtsZ, an ancestral tubulin.</i> In: <i><a href="Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.</i> Band 95, 1998, S. 4368–4373 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/95/8/4368.abstract">(Abstract)</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Ralf_Reski(2002)-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Ralf_Reski(2002)_10-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ralf Reski: <i>Rings and networks: the amazing complexity of FtsZ in chloroplasts.</i> In: <i>Trends in Plant Science.</i> Band 7, 2002, S. 103–105 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/abstract/S1360-1385(02)02232-X">(Abstract)</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Kiessling,_J.(2000)-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Kiessling,_J.(2000)_11-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Kiessling, S. Kruse, S. A. Rensing, K. Harter, E. L. Decker, R. Reski: <i>Visualization of a cytoskeleton-like FtsZ network in chloroplasts.</i> In: <i><a href="Journal_of_Cell_Biology" title="Journal of Cell Biology">Journal of Cell Biology</a>.</i> Band 151, 2000, S. 945–950 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jcb.rupress.org/cgi/content/abstract/151/4/945">(Abstract)</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Nakayama2017-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Nakayama2017_12-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Takuro Nakayama, Yuji Inagaki: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-13578-8">https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-13578-8</a> Genomic divergence within non-photosynthetic cyanobacterial endosymbionts in rhopalodiacean diatoms], in: <a href="Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a> Scientific Reports, Band 7, Nr. 13075, 12. Oktober 2017, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-13578-8" class="extiw external" title="doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13578-8">doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13578-8</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">NCBI: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=2528046"><i>Pseudoblepharisma tenue</i> Kahl, 1926</a> (species)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">NCBI: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=2784338">Thiodictyon endosymbiont of Pseudoblepharisma tenue</a> (species)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">LPSN: [<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://lpsn.dsmz.de/species/thiodictyon-syntrophicum">https://lpsn.dsmz.de/species/thiodictyon-syntrophicum</a> "<i>Candidatus</i> Thiodictyon syntrophicum" Peduzzi et al. 2012</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-SAMG2021-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-SAMG2021_16-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sergio A. Muñoz-Gómez, Martin Kreutz, Sebastian Hess: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/7/24/eabg4102">A microbial eukaryote with a unique combination of purple bacteria and green algae as endosymbionts</a>, in: Science Advances, Band 7, Nr. 24, 11. Juni 2021, eabg4102, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abg4102" class="extiw external" title="doi:10.1126/sciadv.abg4102">doi:10.1126/sciadv.abg4102</a>. Dazu:
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182319/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases_ml/2021-06/uoc-v061421.php">Ungewöhnliche Symbiose aus Wimpertierchen, Grünalgen und Purpurbakterien</a>, auf: EurekAlert! vom 14. Juni 2021</li></ul>
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